The main objective is to define this character's urge to rationalize, while describing the outskirts of the city where blacks lived. In his trip to the other side of the city, Betancourt discovers a strange world populated by mythological beings, described as others, as those who are non-white. Fragmento de mi libro "Miedo negro, poder blanco en la Cuba colonial. University of Alicante, Spain. Issue: summer Volume: 55 Publication Date: May 13, In this article I discuss three chronicles previously unpublished and two of them unknown, written by Alejo Carpentier in France for Le Phare de Neuilly.
I argue that this way of representing "las muchedumbres" goes hand in hand with his reverence for " intellectual aristocrats, " men of higher virtues and intelligence, whose role was to guide the crowds and instruct them, although they always ended up crucified like Christ or abandoned like Bolivar.
Revista de Literatura y Cultura. Ben Vinson. New York: Oxford University Press. Volume: 25 Page Numbers: Even though Spanish American Modernismo is best known for its aesthetic representation of reality, and images of great beauty, in this article I underline these writer's attraction for the morbid and sensationalist literature. I discuss Journal of literary criticism and culture.
In the following article I return to the idea of ethnicity and liberalism in Latin America during the last part of the 19th century. Articles in English. The Discourse of sacrifice in Cuba's Wars of Independence more. At least until Moreno Fraginals defected in and established his residence in Miami. In this article I focus In this article, I examine the relationship between slave uprisings and religion in the Caribbean and the United States.
They were all-men secret societies that were feared by whites and the government itself. In this article I give an overall view of this society throughout Cuban In this article I give an overall view of this society throughout Cuban history, and highlight the forms of appropriation and rejections of their members for social and political reasons.
Issue: 18 Volume: 6 Page Numbers: They criticized the influence of African dances, slangs and religion in Cuba, waging a war with their "pens" as Cuban liberators did with their "machetes. He also wrote for It addressed and informed the Cuban communities during the preparation for the Revolution. In what follows, I will try to show that by the time the US government decided to intervene in the Cuban war of independence, the The York Times had already talked enough about Marti's plans, had translated and published at least one of his manifestos into English, had quoted him verbatim, and had kept the public in general informed of the situation on the Island.
Other Articles. M, nos hacen pensar que es del cubano. El barbero de New-York. Weyler, el racismo y la guerra de Cuba more. Cuban politics. Diario de Cuba 03 de septiembre more. Revista hispanoamericana de Cultura 4. Revista Hispanoamericana de Cultura. The user has two tab options — encrypt and decrypt.
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Oracle Rootkits 2. Practical Malware Analysis. Return Oriented Programming. Web App Hacking Hackers Handbook. This is borne out by a teachers' textbook that I have which advises south of England teachers to place extra emphasis on the "pure long vowel" of "lake", which to southern English ears does sound more like an accent from further north of the country.
There are no second place diphthong signs. No heavy versions. The first three never change angle, the last may be rotated when joined.
The angle is adjusted slightly but this does not clash with the third place vowel "owl" because of the outline's position. Rotated when joined finally to horizontal strokes or upward ell. Shown by extending the diphthong sign with a tick. A vowel sign is placed to the side of the stroke, at the beginning, middle or end. The vowels are therefore described as first, second and third place vowels.
With strokes that can be written in either direction, the vowel placement will vary, and care should be taken when the stroke stands alone, both in writing and in transcription. Place outside of circle S, Sway, Stee and Ster loop: bees beast swan star stock stopper poster blister 3. SES circle is deemed to include the vowel in "pen"; if it is a different vowel, write it inside the circle: success masses bases plural of base , basis, bases pronounced baseez, plural of basis emphasise emphasis exercise Dash vowel inside the circle — Books vary in showing at what angle it is written: census Colossus exhaust 4.
Shun hook — vocalise the stroke just as you would if the shun hook were not there, with the following exceptions: a Third place dots written inside the shun hook: fashion fission vision revision mission permission lesion In most cases the dot inside the hook is the vowel immediately before the Shun, but sometimes it is the vowel before that: remission television compare initiation b Third place dashes, diphones and diphthongs are written outside the shun hook when the hook is final because they need more room and inside when the hook is medial to avoid the sign being read as belonging to the next stroke.
A third place vowel before the stroke should be placed a little way inwards from the hook. The following illustrates two vowels on the hook side of stroke: apposition opposition imposition 5.
When Ell is written downwards, the vowels follow suit: like alike 6. After a halved stroke, the vowel should be written against the second stroke, as it is sounded after the T or D: cottage pottage bandage octopus potato written 8.
All dots and dashes should be just far enough away to be distinguishable as separate marks, so that they do not interfere with the recognition of the strokes themselves. This is because a third place vowel written after the first stroke could end up in an angle between strokes and therefore be ambiguous — you would not know whether it was a third place vowel after the first stroke, or a first place vowel against the next stroke: peel pull big beet book tick took deep jig cheap fig food video meal nil pip peep bib beep cook gig If the two strokes are separated by a circle S or S-plus-hook, then the vowel must remain with the first stroke, it cannot "jump" over the S, because it is sounded before.
The presence of the S or S-plus-hook enables the vowel to be written in its correct third place with less ambiguity: Dick disk, leap lisp, creep crisp, ping pinning A compound word is one that is made up of two other words. In the outline for a compound word, the vowel often remains where it would be if the words were written separately, thus aiding legibility: headache book-end steam-engine Compound words are treated as one outline as regards to position unlike phrases where the first word is written in position and the others tag along.
Therefore the first up or down stroke might reside in the second of the two words, such as "steam-engine" above. The above does not apply to derivative words, where there is one word and one affix; these have the vowels placed normally according to the basic rules: unable inorganic inactive fewness steamer B coming between an initial hook and the stroke e.
Although the R and L hooks are primarily used to represent the two consonants together, sometimes the hooked form is used even though a vowel is present, in order to avoid an awkward outline or obtain a better outline for very common words.
Most of such intervening vowels are only lightly or indistinctly sounded. If the vowel is "-er" as in "permit" it is not shown. It is however taken to be a second place light dot vowel and is in fact shown as such in other outlines that are not using a hook and so the outline takes second position, where this is the first vowel. Where a second place dash vowel is written through the stroke, the following vowel has to be written against the next stroke, as in "courage" and "occurrence" below: tolerable correspondence church George shovelful fulfil courage occurrence A diphone or diphthong may also be written through, or at the end of, a hooked stroke: healthier junior direct 2 pronunciations temperature mixture capture captures capturing The above use of R or L hook plus intervening vowel is not generally used for words of one syllable: pale pair tall tore jeer mare Some short words use the intervening vowel to gain a brief outline, where clashes are unlikely: nurse dark gnarl barm course Turk NOTE: The prefixes "self-" and "self-con-" also use a circle in this case representing the S sound , and the outline is always in second position to match the vowel in "self".
It might therefore look identical to a 2nd position intervening vowel, but the rules state that the short E vowel between stroke and hook is not shown whether accented or not , although all other vowels may be shown.
Therefore no clash occurs. Position writing combined with the various choices of abbreviating methods combine to make it clear which word is signified, without guesswork, when the vowels are eventually omitted.
Unlike omitting vowels, position writing is not optional and you should practise inserting vowels until you know their placement perfectly, for two reasons: you need to know what and where they go in order to write the outline in the correct position, and when you do need to insert them, you have to do it very rapidly.
Words beginning with the disjoined circle for "self-" or "selfcon-" are always written in second position, to accord with the vowel in the word "self". As the second and subsequent up or downstrokes in the outline simply follow on from the first one, their position with regard to the ruled line carries no meaning.
An outline that is written as part of a phrase may end up out of position and may need a vowel inserted to keep it readable. If the first up or downstroke is a doubled one, then the first half of it is placed in position: father curvature alter latter letter litter "Father" should be started at high up as possible, and the end of the stroke will probably run through the ruled line, unless your shorthand writing is very small.
With "latter" the end of the stroke may invade the ruled line above, but this is acceptable. You should not reduce the full double length in order to squeeze it within the ruled lines. You need the full length for clarity, so aim for longer rather than shorter. Inserting the vowel helps when there is only one stroke — the vowels are placed further apart on doubled strokes. Only a full up or downstroke can be written through the line, so if the first up or downstroke is halved, or there are only horizontal strokes in the outline, third position is also ON the line, sharing it with second position.
Although horizontal strokes and halved up or downstrokes have no third position, vowels still have a third place against the stroke.
Although the beginner will write fully vocalised outlines, this is a temporary state of affairs while the vowels are being learned. At some point your textbook will encourage you to omit writing all the but the most necessary vowels. This does seem a great hurdle to the learner but once this step is taken, any perceived difficulties soon melt away. After a very short while this will become second nature, and you will recognise instantly when a vowel needs to be inserted.
Omitting vowels is the very first step in writing at speed, which is why it is introduced at an early stage. This transition resembles writing separate letters of the alphabet and then going on to "joined-up" writing — you write lightly, flowingly and speedily, rather than slow drawing and pressing into the paper.
This is the point in your learning when you realise that shorthand can be written fast, and eagerness takes over from frustration. The shorthand you read is generally what you have written yourself, therefore you are seeing it for the second time. Reading matter provided by others tends to have more vowels inserted. Unusual words and names of people and places, at least on their first occurrence in the dictation, as context does not give you help with those.
Words in phrases that end up out of position may need the help of a vowel. One or both of pairs of Distinguishing Outlines. If you know you have written an outline badly or wrongly, you may only have time to insert a vowel or two, rather than rewrite the outline.
All the horizontal and downstrokes are paired, thick and thin, to match the related sounds of voiced and unvoiced. No thick stroke is ever written upwards, Thick and thin refers to the width of the line and not the lightness or darkness of the colour, although the thick lines may end up being darker in colour because it takes pressure to form them.
The outlines here were written with blue ink in a shorthand pen with flexible nib, and therefore the thick strokes appear darker because of the pooling of the ink. Pencil outlines may also show variation between grey and black. Black ink should produce much less variation in shade. Some older books refer to shading which should not be taken literally but is a description of the overall appearance of the marks. No basic stroke represents more than one sound. A stroke can have other consonants added to it by various means e.
A vertical dash vowel, e. The only time the pen writes upwards is while completing a circle or hook. Some dash vowels may sometimes have an upward slant when written to curves. There is no stroke or sign that is written straight upwards in its basic form; however, the halved Ess is written upwards in certain situations being a halved stroke and therefore similar to writing half of a Circle Ses, part of which would necessarily have to be written upwards : educationist expressionist impressionist OUTLINE This is the shorthand form for a word, before the unattached vowel signs are added.
Write the strokes one after the other, joining them end to end, without stopping at the angles, lifting the pen or going back to thicken or correct any part. All the strokes must be completed before inserting any further dots, dashes, vowel signs or intersections. Each stroke must be written in its correct direction. A few strokes have alternative directions in which they may be written, in certain circumstances. Advanced writers often find other uses for proximity in their phrases, enabling them to leave out obvious words: I am confident, in control Packing your shorthand outlines tightly together along the line is not a good idea, as proximity is meaningful in certain circumstances.
The only time to do that is when you are running out of paper in an emergency or writing that time-honoured secret shorthand postcard that the postman cannot read! Alternative methods are used in the following combinations: a Three similar straight strokes in succession — break up the outline, use the hyphen sign if it helps: pop-up cake-cutter Where a halved or doubled straight stroke would not make an angle with other strokes in the outline: popped Babette judged cooked dotted fact factor liked bonnet A succession of all up- or downstrokes: 3 is maximum, 4 should be avoided to prevent the outline invading the line below or above, causing delays and interference.
One might get away with 4 downstrokes if it started above the line, but these start already through the line. I would suggest breaking the words up — this gives the advantage that you can place both parts in position to indicate the vowel. This is also relevant for many words where it is not settled in usage whether it is one word, hyphenated or two words. You should write a reliable and convenient outline, and make a separate decision on how it should be transcribed.
An outline without its vowels is not considered incomplete. Dictionaries always show all the vowels. Dot "con-", dot "-ing" and dash "-ings" are considered part of the outline, in the same way as joined diphthongs, and, unlike the unattached vowel signs, they should never be left out, except when using proximity for "con-".
Adding or omitting unattached vowels is a choice that is left to the writer. You should always include those vowels that you think will help you read the shorthand. If you always write in all the vowels, your speed will be severely hampered, and you should endeavour to omit all but the essential ones.
When dictation slows right down or there is a breathing space, it is tempting to go back and put in all the vowels. It is up to you how much to vocalise, and whether the extra time taken is working for or against you.
If you think you might have to read back, having extra vowels in will reduce the stress. Putting them in at every opportunity is not a helpful habit if you wish to attain good shorthand speed — the two are incompatible.
However, it is a good exercise to undertake periodically, so that you revise and consolidate your knowledge of them. Position writing is dependent on knowing your vowels thoroughly and you should not leave them out because you do not know what they are or where they go. You should make lists of such vocabularies in your line of work and decide where you need to consistently insert the vowels. Single outlines that have little or no context, such as headings or lists.
Proper names i. Context does not help with proper names. Such outlines should also be as full as possible and not make use of short forms. Clashing or very similar pairs see Distinguishing Outlines page. If the outlines are the same, you can generally omit the vowel in the common one and always put the vowel in the less common one, thus reducing your overall writing. Compile your own lists as you come across them, and let none escape, considering the damage or embarrassment they are capable of.
In the heat of rapid dictation, you may have to create an outline in an instant. You know it is not the dictionary outline, but you must write something. The vowels will help you read it back, but the offending outline should be looked up and drilled to prevent a recurrence — keep a notebook so that you can practise them. Each pen lift approximates to writing a stroke, so avoiding a pen lift by phrasing saves time.
Phrasing is generally for sets of words that are frequently found together, or is used to mirror the way words are naturally grouped in normal speech: Dear-Sirs Thank-you for-your-letter that-we-have- re ceived yest erday ev en ing yours-si n cerely Tick "the" is always joined and therefore it always makes a mini-phrase.
Phrasing is an extremely useful tool, with endless possibilities for time saving and many of its own abbreviation methods. The ink line forming the phrase was called a "phraseogram" in the early days of shorthand, out of a desire to give every new concept its own terminology, allowing the systems to be described and taught with exactitude.
It is normal nowadays to just use the word "outline" to cover any shorthand ink line, and "phrase" covers either the outline or the set of words being represented by it.
They are also necessary to insure the system against the inevitable distortion of handwritten outlines versus the drawn perfection on the textbook pages. The system is geared to having the best possible outlines for high-speed writing and reliability. Producing the minimum number of rules or the slimmest possible textbook is not a priority in New Era.
Incorporate any abbreviating devices available and suitable. Insert the vowel signs. If the resultant outline violates "facility, legibility, lineality" then decide on a better outline. Some outlines depart from the normal rules because of the extreme convenience and brevity gained. The rules are really just a way of describing how the outline choices were made, thus helping the student understand what is going on.
Understanding requires intelligence but no great effort and is infinitely better than memorising, which is inefficient, painful and discouraging. As long as the initial understanding is followed by lots of writing practice, memorising is totally unnecessary and redundant.
Seeing a page thick with rules can be very daunting, but if you learn the example outlines thoroughly, they themselves will speak volumes to you and in far less time and space than the lengthy chapter they were presented in.
They enable you to spot a bad combination simply by instant mental comparison with known good outlines. Every shorthand writer does this when correcting a dubious outline that has been dashed off.
If you have an understanding of why the choices of outline were originally made, you will be better informed to make your own choices when you need to decide on the outline for a new word without recourse to a dictionary — either it is not in there, or you do not have access to the book.
Until the publishers see fit to reprint Pitman's Shorthand dictionaries and bring them up to date, being able to do this is becoming ever more important for shorthand writers. You do not need to know all the niceties of the theory when first learning, but the more you know, the better you will be able to write new words, either ones not in the dictionary or when no dictionary is available. To aspiring high-speeders they are a never-ending toolbox for further creative abbreviation.
Some textbooks advise knowing all the rules and applying them perfectly in order to write good and fast shorthand, but I disagree strongly with this. When writing shorthand, your outlines will of course embody the rules, but you will never be thinking of the rules — either the outline jumps to mind or it doesn't, and you must move on in the next fraction of a second. Bur these remarks did not apply to the area directly unde Figure 20, page 40 Trip details were full of references to signal lights and signs, study.
Central Los Angeles is far from the visual chaos of Jerse; intersections and turning problems. On the freeways, decisions City, and it has a rather liberal number of single building land had to be made far ahead of time; there were constant lane marks. Yet, except for a conceptual and rather undifferentiated maneuvers.
It was like shooting rapids in a boat, with the same grid, it was difficult to organize or comprehend as a whole. I excitement and tension, the same constant effort to "keep one's had no strong general symbols.
The strongest images, Broadway head. There were frequent references to the over- at least, rather alien or even menacing. Not one described then passes, the fun of the big interchanges, the kinesthetic sensations as pleasant or beautiful.
The little, neglected Plaza, and certain of dropping, turning, climbing. For some persons, driving was a of the shopping or entertainment functions symbolized by the challenging, high-speed game. One subject put this by topography. One subject felt that coming over a great hill each saying that the old Plaza, on one end, and the new Wilshire Bou- morning marked the midpoint of her journey and gave shape to levard, on the other, were the only things with character, and that it.
Another noted the extension of the city's scale due to the they summed up Los Angeles. The image seemed to lack much new roads, which have changed her whole conception of the of the recognizable character, stability, and pleasant meaning of relations of elements. There were references to the pleasure of central Boston. On the other hand, as in Boston, these drivers We find, in comparing these three cities if we can find any- seemed to have difficulty in locating the freeway, in tying it to thing in such small samplings that, as might be expected, peo- the rest of the city structure.
There was a common experience ple adjust to their surroundings and extract structure and identity of a momentary loss of orientation when coming off a freeway our of the material at hand. The types of elements used in the ramp. Perhaps quite comparable between the three, although the proportion of because so much of the environment is new or changing, there element types may vary with the actual form.
Yet at the same was evidence of widespread, almost pathological, attachment to time, there are marked differences between the levels of orienta- anything that had survived the upheaval. Thus the tiny Plaza- tion and satisfaction in these different physical environments. Olvera Street node: or even the decayed hotels of Bunker Hill, Among other things, the tests made clear the significance of Figure 4.
Page 20 claimed the attention of many subjects. There was an impression space and breadth of view. The dominance of Boston's Charles from these few interviews that there is an even greater senti- River edge is based on the wide visual sweep it affords on enter- mental attachment to what is old than exists in conservative ing the city from this side. A large number of city elements Boston. There was an emotional delight arising from a broad view, Quite as apparent is the constant reference to socio-economic which was referred to many times.
Would it be possible, in our class: the avoidance of "lower class" Broadway in Los Angeles, cities, to make this panoramic experience a more common one, the recognition of the "upper class" Bergen Section in Jersey for the thousands who pass every day? A broad view will some- City, or the unmistakable division of Boston's Beacon Hill into times expose chaos, or express characterless loneliness, but a well- two distinct sides.
The interviews brought out another general response: to the Even raw or shapeless space seems to be remarkable, although way in which the physical scene symbolizes the passage of time. Many people refer to the clearance and The Boston interviews were full of references to age contrast: excavation at Dewey Square in Boston as a striking sight. But when the space has some form, as it does along the Street; the old dark, ornamented, low Trinity Church silhou- Charles River or on Commonwealth Avenue, in Pershing Square etted against the new bright, stark, tall John Hancock Build- or Louisburg Square or to some extent in Copley Square, the ing, and so on.
Indeed, descriptions were often made as if they impact is much stronger: the feature becomes memorable. If were a response to contrast in the urban scene: sparial contrast.
Boston's Scollay Square or Jersey City's Journal Square had spa- status contrast, use contrast, relative age, or comparisons of clean- rial character commensurate with their functional importance, liness or of landscaping. Elements and attributes became remark- they would truly be key features in their cities. The landscape features of the city: the vegetation or the water, In Los Angeles there is an impression that the fluidity of the were often noted with care and with pleasure.
The Jersey City environment and the absence of physical elements which anchor subjects were sharply aware of the few green oases in their sur- to the past are exciting and disturbing. Many descriptions of roundings; those of Los Angeles often stopped to describe the the scene by established residents, young or old, were accom- exotic variety of local vegetation.
Several of them reported daily panied by the ghosts of what used to be there. Changes, such as detours which lengthened their trip to work but allowed them to those wrought by the freeway system, have left scars on the men- pass by some particular planting, park, or body of water.
Here is tal image. It's very nice, and — oh — the jacarandas orient fast enough to keep up with them. One house about a block above has them. On down Canyon and all kinds of palm trees there: the high General comments such as these quickly become apparent on palms and the low palms; and then on down to the park. It is possible, however, to study both interviews and field studies more systematically, and to learn Los Angeles, geared to the motor car, also furnishes the most much more about the character and structure of the urban image.
These elements may be defined as follows: 1. Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves. They may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads.
For many peo- ple, these are the predominant elements in their image. People observe the city while moving through it, and along these paths III. Edges are the linear elements not used or consid- ered as paths by the observer.
They are the boundaries between two phases, linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls. They are lateral references rather than coordinate axes. These edge elements, although probably not as dom- inant as paths, are for many people important organizing fea- There seems to be a public image of any given city tures, particularly in the role of holding together generalized which is the overlap of many individual images.
Or perhaps areas, as in the outline of a city by water or wall. Districts are the medium-to-Iarge sections of the number of citizens.
Such group images are necessary if an indi- city, conceived of as having two-dimensional extent, which the vidual is to operate successfully within his environment and to observer mentally enters "inside of," and which are recognizable cooperate with his fellows. Each individual picture is unique. Always identi- with some content that is rarely or never communicated, yet it fiable from the inside, they are also used for exterior reference if approximates the public image, which, in different environments, visible from the outside.
Most people structure their city to some is more or less compelling, more or less embracing. It seems to depend not objects. There are other influences on imageability, such as the only upon the individual but also upon the given city. Nodes, Nodes are points, the strategic spots in a city into name.
These will be glossed over, since the objective here is to which an observer can enter, and which are the intensive foci to uncover the role of form itself. It is taken for granted, that in and from which he is traveling.
They may be primarily junc- actual design form should be used to reinforce meaning, and not tions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or conver- to negate it. The contents of the city images so far studied, which are refer- Or the nodes may be simply concentrations, which gain their im- able to physical forms, can conveniently be classified into five portance from being the condensation of some use or physical types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks.
Ele- district, over which their influence radiates and of which they merus regularly overlap and pierce one another. If this analysis stand as a symbol. They may be called cores. Many nodes, of begins with the differentiation of the data into categories, it must course, partake of the nature of both junctions and concentra- end with their reintegration into the whole image.
Our studies tions. The concept of node is related to the concept of path, have furnished much information about the visual character of since junctions are typically the convergence of paths, events on the element types. This will be discussed below. Only to a the journey.
It is similarly related to the concept of district, lesser extent, unfortunately, did the work make revelations about since cores are typically the intensive foci of districts, their polar- the interrelations between elements, or about image levels, image izing center. In any event, some nodal points are to be found in qualities, or the development of the image.
These latter topics almost every image, and in certain cases they may be the dom- will be treated at the end of this chapter. Landmarks are another type of point-reference, Paths but in this case the observer does not enter within them, they For most people interviewed, paths were the predominant city are external.
They are usually a rather simply defined physical elements, although their importance varied according to the object: building, sign, store, or mountain. Their use involves degree of familiarity with the city.
People with least knowledge the singling our of one element from a host of possibilities. Subjects who knew the city better had usually radial references. They may be within the city or at such a dis- mastered part of the path structure; these people thought mote in tance that for all practical purposes they symbolize a constant terms of specific paths and their interrelationships.
A tendency direction. Such are isolated towers, golden domes, great hills. Other landmarks are pri- The potential drama and identification in the highway system marily local, being visible only in restricted localities and from should nor be underestimated. One Jersey City subject, who can certain approaches.
These are the innumerable signs, store find little worth describing in her surroundings, suddenly lit up fronts, trees, doorknobs, and other urban derail, which fill in the when she described the Holland Tunnel. Another recounted her image of most observers. They are frequently used clues of iden- pleasure: tity and even of structure, and seem to be increasingly relied upon as a journey becomes more and more familiar. You cross Baldwin Avenue, you see all of New York in front of you, you see the terrific drop of land the Palisades.
Thus an and you're going down hill, and there you know: there's the expressway may be a path for the driver, and edge for the pedes- tunnel, there's the Hudson River and everything. I always trian. Or a central area may be a district when a city is organized look to the right to see if I can see the.
Statue of Liberty. But the categories seem to have stability for a the weather is. I have a real feeling of happiness because given observer when he is operating at a given level. I'm going someplace, and I love to go places. None of the element types isolated above exist in isolation in Particular paths may become important features in a number the real case. Districts are structured with nodes, defined by of ways. Narrow Washington Street is the exception to this features. Obstacles to traffic, which often complicate the struc- rule, and here the contrast is so strong in the other direction, as ture, may in other cases clarify it by concentrating cross flow into narrowness is reinforced by tall buildings and large crowds, that fewer channels, which thus become conceptually dominant.
Some of the ori- Beacon Hill, acting as a giant rotary, raises the importance of entation difficulties in Boston's financial district, or the anonymity Cambridge and Charles Streets; the Public Garden strengthens of the Los Angeles grid, may be due to this lack of spatial dom- Beacon Street. The Charles River, by confining traffic to a few inance. Quite similarly, the Palisades in Jersey identity.
Beacon Street and Commonwealth Avenue were dis- City focus attention on the three streets that successfully sur- tinctive partly because of the building facades that line them. Pavement texture seemed to be less important, except in special Concentration of special use or activity along a street may give cases such as Olvera Street in Los Angeles.
Details of planting Figure 21, page 53 Figure 30, page 77 it prominence in the minds of observers. Washington Street is seemed also to be relatively unimportant, but a great deal of the outstanding Boston example: subjects consistently associated planting, like that on Commonwealth Avenue, could reinforce it with shopping and theatres.
Some people extended these char- a path image very effectively. In this case the path would be Washington extends beyond the entertainment segment, and acting secondarily as an edge. Atlantic Avenue derived much thought it ended near Essex or Stuart Streets.
Arlington —where the use concentrations are prominent enough to make and Tremont Streets were distinctive because one side runs along linear districts. People seemed to be sensitive to variations in a park, and Cambridge Street acquired clarity from its border the amount of activity they encountered, and sometimes guided relationship to Beacon Hill. Other qualities that gave impor- themselves largely by following the main stream of traffic.
Los tance to single paths were the visual exposure of the path itself Figure 18, page 38 Angeles' Broadway was recognized by its crowds and its street Or the visual exposure from the path of other parts of the city. Other kinds of activity at ground level also seemed as it sweeps through the city on an elevated course.
The bridges Figure 7. But the Station, or the bustle of the food markets. Los Angeles freeways at the edges of the downtown area are Characteristic spatial qualities were able to strengthen the Figure A number image of particular paths. In the simplest sense, streets that sug- Of car-oriented subjects spoke as if those freeways were not gest extremes of either width or narrowness attracted attention.
On the other hand, drivers indicated that their attention Cambridge Street, Commonwealth Avenue, and Atlantic Avenue sharpened as a freeway came out of a cut and attained a wide are all well known in Boston, and all were singled out for their view. Spatial qualities of width and narrowness derived Occasionally, paths were important largely for structural rea- part of their importance from the common association of main sons.
Massachusetts Avenue was almost pure structure for most streets with width and side streets with narrowness. Looking subjects, who were unable to describe it. Most of the Jersey City paths seemed to have this purely structural character. Where major paths lacked identity, or were easily confused one for the other, the entire city image was in difficulty. Bos- ton's Longfellow Bridge was nor infrequently confused with the Charles River Dam, probably since both carry transit lines and terminate in traffic circles.
This made for real difficulties in the city, both in the road and subway systems. Many of the paths in Jersey City were difficult to find, both in reality and in memory. That the paths, once identifiable, have continuity as well, is an obvious functional necessity. People regularly depended upon this quality. The fundamental requirement is that the actual track, or bed of the pavement, go through; the continuity of other characteristics is less important.
Paths which simply have a sat- isfactory degree of track continuity were selected as the dependa- ble ones in an environment like Jersey City. They can be followed by the stranger, even if with difficulty. People often generalized that other kinds of characteristics along a continuous track were also continuous, despite actual changes. But other factors of continuity had importance as well. When the channel width changed, as Cambridge Street does at Bowdoin Square, or when the spatial continuity was interrupted, as it is at Washington Street at Dock Square, people had difficulty in sensing a continuation of the same path.
Examples of characteristics giving continuity to a path are the simply from standing on a street which by name continues to the planting and facades along Commonwealth Avenue, or the build- heart of the city, however far.
A reverse example is the attention ing type and serback along Hudson Boulevard. Names in them- given to the nondescript beginnings of Wilshire and Sunset Bou- selves played a role. Beacon Street is primarily in the Back Bay levards in the central area of Los Angeles, because of their special but relates to Beacon Hill by its name.
The continuity of the character farther out. The path bordering the Boston harbor, name of Washington Street gave people a clue as to how to pro- on the other hand, was at times fragmented simply because of the ceed through the South End, even if they were ignorant of this changing names it bears: Causeway Street, Commercial Street, area. There is a pleasant feeling of relationship to be gained and Atlantic Avenue.
In Jersey City, the be distinguished from the reverse. This can be done by a gradi- never-accomplished convergence of the three main streets cross- ent, a regular change in some quality which is cumulative in one ing the Palisades, and their final nondescript subsidence, was direction.
Most frequently sensed were the topographic gradi- highly confusing. A gradient of use intensity, such as on the ferred by termini, can be created by other elements which may be approach to Washington Street, was also noted, or, on a regional visible near the end, or apparent end, of a path. The Common scale, the gradient of increasing age on approaching the center near one end of Charles Street acted this way, as did the State of Los Angeles on a freeway.
In the relatively gray environment House for Beacon Street. The apparent visual closure of 7th Figure Both are accomplished by a slight shift of the path direc- tion of movement. This was not often sensed kinesthetically: tion, putting an important building on the visual axis. Elements the only citations of a bodily sense of curving motion were in known to be on a particular side of a path also conferred a sense the Boston subway, or on portions of the Los Angeles freeways.
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